Treasury and Risk Management in an International Context Assignment

Treasury and Risk Management in an International Context - Assignment ExampleExchange target system shows the arrangement in which an authority controls value of different currencies in foreign exchange market with respect to different currencies. There are in the main two types of exchange rate systems such as fixed and floating exchange rates. Fixed exchange rate system aims to fix the value of a currency against the value of a stronger currency, a basket of currencies or other measurements like gold. The system is better known as pegged exchange rate because it triggers to brace the value of a currency through pegging it with a steadier and internationally recognized currency. Hence, trading opportunities become more stabilized and predictable, especially for economies in which external patronage is held responsible for a large chunk of Gross Domestic Product (Ghosh, A, M. G. Wolf and H. C. Wolf, 2002). Though, according to the theory, fixed exchange rate leads to establish g reater scotch stability and helps the multinational firms to forecast future currency rates so that risks associated with international pricing can be managed by them, in reality, devaluation or brushup of currencies driven by inflation, interest rate, and other economic variables do not allow currencies to remain fixed forever (Caves, 2007). Hence, the policymakers have adopted a issue of fixing currency with a portfolio of a number of currencies with different weights such as euro, yen, British pound etc. This type of exchange rate is less(prenominal) susceptible to the economic occurrences of a particular country. For instance, increase in inflation rate will directly impact on a currency pegged with US dollar however, if the currency is pegged with a basket of currencies, the effect of increasing inflation in the US will be diluted by the presence of other currencies and will have less impact on the pegged currency.

Change Process and Models Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Change Process and Models - Coursework ExampleWithout any iota of difficulty, the change that took place can be explained using three change subroutine theories. These change process theories have carefully been enumerated below in relation to the change that took place within the organization.The first theory that explains the change that took place is the forecast theory. In an expectancy theory, it is generally said that people are induced to act in specific ways because they are motivated to act as such (Johnson, 2012). What this means is that expectancy theory demands that people pay off the motivation they receive by giving back excellent delivery. Looking at the fact that two people were promoted as a form of intrinsic motivation (Homik et al, 2008), it can be said that the expectancy theory was applied in this example. This is because by motivating these two employees with the promotions, they will become obliged and pass judgment to work with certain levels of output exp ectations. If for nothing at all, they will be expected to work above their means as a way of proving to their superiors that they deserve the promotions that were granted them.Another change process theory that comes to play in this instance is that of equity theory. According to the equity theory, people within an organization will be expecting to judge whether or not there is being fair dispersion of available resources (Fuchs et al, 1997). With the present scenario, fairness and equity can be judged from the fact that the employees of the organization who were promoted can be labeled as resources because they form the basis of the benevolent resource of their organization (Gardener, 2008). Secondly, fairness was attained because their hard work for their organization was acknowledged and rewarded. Indeed, there had been situations within the same organization whereby some employees were very aggrieved because they matte up that their efforts were not recognized

The Opium Wars Commentary Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Opium Wars Commentary - Research Paper ExampleFrance, Britain and the United States deployed some of their citizens, as well as their army men, to go and settle in strategic regions of China. This put the country into pressure noting that its sovereignty was being mocked by the three other nations, which had decided to settle without consent in China. Chinas endeavor to remove the foreigners from their land was what made the whole process seem like warfare as there were always tensions throughout the land of expect battles.However, even if it seemed that Britain, The United States and France were taking advantage of Chinas weakness, Chinas regime was brutal and corrupt. It executed m all of its citizens on trumped up charges and was not worthy of any sympathy. Even as it is correct for critics to argue that wars have been brought about by fewer issues, I believe the Opium Wars was a way of granting Britain the right to sell opium to the Chinese. It was to a fault one of our less epic military ventures. The Chinese, according to the source provided, seem to be quite touchy regarding that part of their history, as torching down the Summer palace is quite a sore point. Also it would be an oversight for the British regime to push this matter too far as it will leave office Chinas reliability when objecting to genuine injustices.Another question that might arise from this topic is how weak the Chinese regime was just to allow the sale of tobacco plant to their people from other nations. In addition, they were forced to accept the venture without their views being heard.

Affordable Care Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Affordable Care Act - Essay ExampleThis memo will investigate the impact of ACA on Employer-Sponsored Insurance (ESI) and will specifically see to it various aspects of the Act that shadower discourage large employers to offer healthcare insurance coverage to their employees. This can ultimately result in reduced access and lineament of the healthcare services and increased costs. ACA is a law of primary importance for the people of United States because it aims to address many long standing issues with our health indemnity policies including the coverage of children on parental policy, cessation of donut hole for seniors, elimination of lifetime dollar limit on coverage, free preventive care and many other provisions with an aim to cover every segment of the society to maximum possible limit of coverage, even the uninsured people with a plan to extend access to insurance and more funds to states to help them in extending Medicare facilities to low-income seniors. In essence, t he program is a tremendous effort to fill the gaps of insurance coverage while safeguarding the rights of stakeholders. Still, there are areas which required attention of the legislators to device some amendments in the program in order to ensure and extend its impact on access, cost and quality of health care services. The employer sponsored insurance coverage is the hottest among the controversial issues associated with provisions of ACA that are supposed to be in effect by 2014. thither are two major aspects of the ACA provisions, firstly the impact of Tax Credits to small businesses and its impact on coverage offers by the employer to low and medium salaried employees and secondly the impact on large employers after 2014 when the law will be in effect with all its provisions. The employer-sponsored insurance (ESI) is of immense importance to the American people because larger employers plays an important role in overall health insurance coverage and if these rigids decided to drop the coverage its impact will surely deplore the positivity of the ACA. However, there is a clear divide among the experts and analyst over the estimates of large firms response in 2014. Some forecast a outstanding drop in ESI and other estimate it to be stable. While the overall ESI market is likely to remain fairly stable, modelers and other experts agree that some firm types and covered subgroups are likely to experience changes in coverage soon after 2014. (Avalere, 2011). Although most of the surveys and analysis project a stable ESI market in post-2014 scenario, there are experts, firms and analyst who oppose with some valuable reasoning and proclaim that ACA provisions can cause a major shift in employers policy of health insurance offerings. Overall, 30 percent of employers will definitely or probably stop offering ESI in the years after 2014. (Singhal, Jeris, & Drew, 2011). This is for certain an alarming statement because of heavy reliance of nonelderly Americans o n employer-sponsored health services and no real solution of increased healthcare access and quality can prove beneficial unless it addresses this sector correctly and U.S. Department of Healthcare and Human Services is aware of the fact, The U.S. employer-based health insurance market provides insurance coverage to most two-thirds of the population under 65. In addition, nearly 80 percent of the uninsured live in a family where at least one adult is employed. Therefore, make on these programs might be an attractive component of any

Araby Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Araby - Essay ExampleThe concepts of trauma and memory play a substitution role for development of many popular psychoanalytic ideas. According to Freud, many childhood experiences in early family life can subsequently produce repercussions in adult life. They can also play a significant role in structuring a road-map for the future. All psychoanalytic models are used to explain humankind behaviour of different kinds. They help to understand why people, though same on the surface, tend to act in different ways practically.Psychoanalytic vista helps to understand the young son in Araby. Through the lens of psychoanalysis, we can scrutinize the state of mind of that boy who is also the narrator. He, as a child, is surrounded by such events which deeply influence him in deciding to attend the bazaar which marks the end of his adolescence. He is frustrated by the mundane inside information of everyday life and wants to seek escape. Attending the bazaar to buy a gift for the girl he l ikes is his way of escape from his mundane life. He does not like the loneliness which envelops him. Psychoanalysts stress that social environment and relationships can have good and bad influences. Social relationships influence personality development not single in childhood, but throughout life (Cherry, 2014). Now, Dublins social environment, which is heavily influenced by the Catholic Church, sees desire as immoral. This is why the young boy in Araby is filled with shame at the end of the story when his pursuit of desire and love turns out to be fruitless. This suggests that external factors are often trustworthy for the dark and acutely distressing loneliness which resides inside people.Melanie Klein is another renowned psychoanalyst who is often credited with the concept of inner representations. She claimed that behavioural development is fundamentally dependent on the relationships between young child and the objects in its environment (Bell, 2011). If we

The Ecological and Evolutionary impact of cane toads in Australia Coursework

The Ecological and Evolutionary imp knead of faecese toads in Australia - Coursework ExampleThe females are illustrated to be larger in limit of size compared to their male counterparts (MobileReferences, 2009). However, there have been records to indicate the presence of outsized toads with the latest dubbed toadzilla as it weighed 1.9 pounds and was 20.5 cm long. The male and female rebuke toads can be distinguished by their appearance since females have a smooth skin especially during the mating season whereas the males have a rough skin. Similarly, whip toads can be differentiated other native Australian frogs with their characteristic activity during the day in their clusters and the ability to sit upright. adapted from http//www.feralscan.org.au/docs/Is%20it%20a%20cane%20toad%20Identifying%20toads.pdf Cane toads are gear up in abundant in areas defined by grasslands, woodlands, sand dune, rain forests and mangroves. The diet and feeding trends is vastly flexible since the y feed on anything that they can run by means of including beetles, bees, ants, termites, crickets, pet food and household scraps. In addition, smaller toads, marine snails, native frogs and small snakes form part of the cane toads occasional diet depending on their availability. The cane toad was first presented in Australias Queensland from South America in the year 1935 in an effort to regulate beetle pests of sugarcane (Langford, 2011). However, studies have indicated that cane toads failed to control the cane beetles and relied on other prey (Lindenmayer and Burgman 2005, p.180). Although about 102 can toads were first introduced in Australia, the number has grown enormously to an approximate of 1.5 billion, and it is estimated that the toads occupy over 1 million square kilometres of Australian territory (Hanson, 2013). As such, cane toads are regarded as pests in Australia owing to the nuisance associated with the species. This creates negative economic as well as social i mpacts to the country, which seek immediate address to control the menace. Cane toad invasion speed (km/year) in areas of suitable habitat Adapted from http//hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/people/urban/MS.pdfs/2008(5)/Urbanetal.2008AmNat.pdf Cane toads are known for their capacity to embitter humans and their pets. All the lifecycle stages of the toad are poisonous as the paratoid glands produce the poison (Cameron 2012). The toad responds to threats by turning the paratoid glands towards the intruder and spraying over a short distance a fine squirt of the poison. The poison is absorbed through the mucus membranes such as the eyes mouth and the nose to cause immerse pain and irritation. Although no humans are reported to have died in Australia, other parts of the world have received casualties after consuming cane toad delicacies (Badger and Netherton2004, p.96). Poisoning is indicated by profuse salivation, vomiting, and shallow breathe. The poison is illustrated to act principally on the heart and death may occur due to cardiac arrest. The toads have been demonstrated to inhabit residential areas around swimming pools. This creates a disturbing scene to residents seeking to spend a warm afternoon by the pool. Moreover, the toads play host numerous parasites including roundworms and salmonella due to ingestion faeces, and can soft transmit infections in the society. Similarly, the toads are capable of transmitting diseases to native frogs and fishes (CSIRO 2003, p.2). Rotting carcases of cane toads

Mayanmar Army Essay Example for Free

Mayanmar armament EssayIntroduction1.The Myanmar Army (Tatmadaw Kyee in local language) is the land component of the armament of Myanmar. The Myanmar Army is the largest branch of the Armed Forces of Myanmar and has the primary responsibility of conducting land-based military operations. The Myanmar Army maintains the second largest active force in Southeast Asia after Vietnams Vietnam Peoples Army. 2.The Myanmar Army has a troop strength around 492,000. The array has rich combat ingest in fighting incendiarys in rough terrains, considering it has been conducting non-stop counter- insurgency operations against ethnic and governmental insurgents since its rise in 1948. 3.The force is headed by the Commander in pass (Army), currently Vice Senior General Maung Aye.The highest rank in the Myanmar Army is Senior General, kindred to Field Marshal position in Western Armies and is currently held by Senior General Than Shwe. The falsification budget of the Myanmar Military is 7.07 billion US dollars. 4. defence reaction polity of Myanmar Tatmadaw was formally decl atomic number 18d in February, 1999. The declared policy outlined the tenet of conglomeration peoples defence for the Union of Myanmar. Threats to the national unity, territorial integrity and sovereign independence of the Union of Myanmar are the most important security nonsubjectives and considered as affrights to the security of state. In the process of formulating Defence Policy and Military Doctrine from a strategical perspective, Tatmadaw has undergone three phases.History5.First phase (post-independence/civil state of war era).The offset phase of the principle was developed in early 1950s to cope with external nemesiss from more than powerful enemies with a schema of Strategic Denial under formal warfare. The perception of threats to state security was more external than internal threats. The internal threat to state security was managed through the use of a mixture of for ce and political persuasion. Lieutenant Colonel Maung Maung drew up defence precept based on schematic warfare concepts, with large fundament divisions, armoured brigades, tanks and motorised war with mass mobilisation for the war effort world the important element of the doctrine. The objective was to contain the offensive of the invading forces at the border for at least three months, while waiting for the arrival of international forces, kindred to the police execute by international intervention forces under the directive of unify Nations during the war on Korean peninsula.However, the conventional strategy under the concept of total war was undermined by the lack of give up command and control dodging, proper logistical support structure, sound economic bases and efficient civil defence organisations. At the ancestor of 1950s, while Tatmadaw was able to reassert its control over most part of the sphere, Kuomintang (KMT) troops under General Li Mai, with support from U nited States, invaded Myanmar and used the countrys barrier as a springboard for attack against Peoples Republic of China, which in turn became the external threat to state security and sovereignty of Myanmar. The first phase of the doctrine was tested for the first time in Operation Naga Naing in February 1953 against invading KMT forces. The doctrine did not take into account logistic and political support for KMT from United States and as a result it failed to deliver the objectives and ended in humiliating defeat for the Tatmadaw.The then Tatmadaw leadership argued that the excessive media coverage was partly to blame for the tribulation of Operation Naga Naing. For example, brigadier general General Maung Maung pointed out that newspapers, such as the Nation, carried reports detailing the cooking and troops positioning, take down went as far to the name and social basis of the commanders who are leading the operation thus losing the element of surprise. Colonel Saw Myint, who was second in command for the operation, also complained astir(predicate) the long lines of communications and the excessive constrict imposed upon the units for public relations activities in order to prove that the support of the people was behind the operation. 6.Second phase (KMT invasion/BSPP era).Despite failure, Tatmadaw continued to rely on this doctrine until the mid 1960s. The doctrine was under constant review and modifications throughout KMT invasion and gained success in anti-KMT operations in the mid and late 1950s.However, this strategy became progressively irrelevant and unsuitable in the late 1950s as the insurgents and KMT changed their positional warfare strategy to hit-and-run guerrilla warfare. At the 1958 Tatmadaws annual Commanding Officers (COs) conference, Colonel Kyi adopt submitted a report outlining the requirement for new military doctrine and strategy. He stated that Tatmadaw did not consecrate a clear strategy to cope with insurgents, even th ough most of Tatmadaws commanders were guerrilla fighters during the anti-British and Japanese campaigns during the Second World War, they had very little knowledge of anti-guerrilla or counterinsurgency warfare. Based upon Colonel Kyi Wins report, Tatmadaw begin developing an appropriate military doctrine and strategy to meet the requirements of counterinsurgency warfare.7.This second phase of the doctrine was to suppress insurgency with peoples war and the perception of threats to state security was more of internal threats. During this phase, external linkage of internal problems and direct external threats were minimised by the hostile policy based on isolation. It was common view of the commanders that unless insurgency was suppressed, foreign interference would be highly probable, therefore counterinsurgency became the core of the new military doctrine and strategy. Beginning in 1961, the Directorate of Military Training took shoot down the enquiry for national defence plann ing, military doctrine and strategy for both internal and external threats. This include reviews of international and domestic political situations, studies of the potential sources of conflicts, array of information for strategic planning and defining the possible routes of foreign invasion.1.In 1962, as part of new military doctrine planning, principles of anti-guerrilla warfare were outlined and counterinsurgency-training courses were delivered at the training schools. The new doctrine laid out three potential enemies and they are internal insurgents, historical enemies with roughly an equal strength (i.e. Thailand), and enemies with greater strength. It states that in suppressing insurgencies, Tatmadaw must be trained to conduct long-range penetration with a tactic of continuous search and destroy. Reconnaissance, Ambush and all weather day and dark offensive and attack capabilities along with winning the hearts and minds of people are important parts of anti-guerrilla warfar e. For countering an historical enemy with equal strength, Tatmadaw should fight a conventional warfare under total war strategy, without giving up an inch of its territory to the enemy. For powerful enemy and foreign invaders, Tatmadaw should engage in total peoples war, with a special focus on guerrilla strategy.8.To prepare for the transition to the new doctrine, Brigadier General San Yu, the then Vice Chief of Staff (Army), sent a delegation led by Lieutenant Colonel Thura Tun Tin was sent to Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and East Germany in July 1964 to study organisation structure, armaments, training, territorial organisation and strategy of peoples militias. A research team was also formed at General Staff Office within the War Office to study defence capabilities and militia formations of neighbouring countries. The new doctrine of total peoples war, and the strategy of anti-guerrilla warfare for counterinsurgency and guerrilla warfare for foreign invasion, were d esigned to be appropriate for Myanmar.The doctrine flowed from the countrys independent and active foreign policy, total peoples defence policy, the nature of perceived threats, its geography and the regional environment, the size of its population in comparison with those of its neighbours, the relatively underdeveloped nature of its economy and its historical and political experiences. The doctrine was based upon three totalities population, time and space (du-thone-du) and four strengths manpower, material, time and morale (Panama-lay-yat). The doctrine did not develop concepts of strategic denial or counter-offensive capabilities. It relied intimately totally on irregular low-intensity warfare, such as its guerrilla strategy to counter any form of foreign invasion.The overall counterinsurgency strategy included not only elimination of insurgents and their support bases with the four cut strategy, but also the building and designation of white area and black area as well. 9.In A pril 1968, Tatmadaw introduced special warfare training programmes at Command Training Centres at various regional commands. Anti-Guerrilla warfare tactics were taught at combat forces schools and other training establishments with special emphasis on ambush and counter-ambush, counterinsurgency weapons and tactics, individual battle initiative for tactical independence, commando tactics, and reconnaissance. Battalion size operations were also skilful in the South West Regional Military Command area. The new military doctrine was formally endorsed and adopted at the first party carnal knowledge of the BSPP in 1971.5 BSPP laid down directives for complete annihilation of the insurgents as one of the tasks for national defence and state security and called for liquidation of insurgents through the strength of the running(a) people as the immediate objective.This doctrine ensures the role of Tatmadaw at the heart of national policy making. 10.Throughout BSPP era, the total peoples wa r doctrine was solely applied in counterinsurgency operations, since Myanmar did not face any direct foreign invasion throughout the period. In 1985, the then Lieutenant General Saw Maung, Vice-Chief of Staff of Tatmadaw reminded his commanders during his mother tongue at the Command and General Staff College. In Myanmar, during that time, out of nearly 35 million people, the combined armed forces (army, navy and channelize force) are about two hundred thousand. In terms of percentage, that is about 0.01 percent. It is simply impossible to defend a country the size of ours with only this handful of troops therefore, what we have to do in the case of foreign invasion is to mobilise people in accordance with the total peoples war doctrine.In order to defend our country from aggressors, the entire population must be involved in the war effort as the support of people dictate the outcome of the war. 11.Third phase (SLORC/SPDC era).The trio phase of doctrinal development of Myanmar Ar med Forces came after the military take over and formation of State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) in September, 1988 as part of armed forces modernisation programme. The development was the reflection of sensitivity towards direct foreign invasion or invasion by proxy state during the degenerate years of the late 80s and early 90s, for example unauthorised presence of US Aircraft Carrier Group in Myanmars territorial waters during 1988 political uprising as evidence of an infringement of Myanmars sovereignty.Also, Tatmadaw leadership was concerned that foreign powers might arm the insurgents on the Myanmar border to exploit the political situation and tensions in the country. This new threat perception, previously in real under the nations isolationist foreign policy, led Tatmadaw leaders to review the defence capability and doctrine of the Tatmadaw. 12.The third phase was to face the rase level external threats with a strategy of strategic denial under total peoples d efence concept. Current military leadership has successfully dealt with 17 study insurgent groups, whose return to legal fold in the past decade has remarkably decreased the internal threats to state security, at least for the short and sensitive terms, even though threat perception of the possibility of external linkage to internal problems, perceived as being motivated by the continuing tender rights violations, religious suppression and ethnic cleansing, remains high. 13.Within the policy, the role of the Tatmadaw was defined as a modern, strong and highly capable fighting force.Since the day of independence, the Tatmadaw has been involved in restoring and maintaining internal security and suppressing insurgency. It was with this background that Tatmadaws multifaceted defence policy was formulated and its military doctrine and strategy could be interpreted as defence-in-depth. It was influenced by a number of factors such as history, geography, culture, economy and sense of th reats. Tatmadaw has developed an active defence strategy based on guerrilla warfare with limited conventional military capabilities, designed to cope with low intensity conflicts from external and internal foes, which threatens the security of the state.This strategy, revealed in joint services exercises, is built on a system of total peoples defence, where the armed forces provide the first line of defence and the training and leadership of the nation in the matter of national defence. It is designed to warn potential aggressors by the knowledge that defeat of Tatmadaws regular forces in conventional warfare would be followed by persistent guerrilla warfare in the occupied areas by people militias and dispersed regular troops which would eventually wear down the invading forces, both physically and psychologically, and leave it vulnerable to a counter-offensive.If the conventional strategy of strategic denial fails, then the Tatmadaw and its auxiliary forces will follow Maos strat egic concepts of strategic defensive, strategic stalemate and strategic offensive. 14.Over the past decade, through a serial publication of modernisation programs, Tatmadaw has developed and invested in better Command, Control, Communication and Intelligence system real-time intelligence formidable air defence system and early precedent systems for its strategic denial and total peoples defence doctrine.Structure of Myanmar Army15.The Army has always been by far, the largest service in Myanmar and has always received the lions share of the Defence Budget. Working Papers Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, ANU Andrew Selth Power Without Glory (ISBN-10 1891936131) It has played the most prominent part in Myanmars struggle against the 40 or more insurgent groups since 1948 and acquired a reputation as a tough and resourceful military force. In 1981, it was described as probably the best army to fight insurgency in Southeast Asia, apart from Vietnams. Far Eastern Economic Review, 20 May 1981 This judgement was echoed in 1983, when another observer noted that Myanmars Infantry is generally rated as one of the toughest, most combat seasoned in Southeast Asia. Far Eastern Economic Review, 7 July 1983 16.In 1985, a foreign journalist with the rare experience of seeing Burmese soldiers in action against ethnic insurgents and narco-armies was thoroughly impressed by their fighting skills, endurance and discipline. Bertil Lintner, Land of Jade Other commentators throughout that time characterised the Myanmar Army as the toughest, most effective light infantry jungle force now operating in Southeast Asia. AsiaWeek 21 Feb. 1992 Even the Thais, not know to praise the Burmese lightly, have described the Myanmar Army as skilled in the art of jungle warfare. The Defence of Thailand (Thai Government issue), p.15, April 1995 Thai soldiers readily acknowledge, albeit privately, the biliousness and determination of their Myanmar counterparts. Despite its preoccupation with re taining political power, the Myanmar Army has never lost sight of its defence role, and over the past 12 years, it has implemented a wide of the mark range of measures which have significantly enhanced its military capabilities.Expansion17.The Tatmadaws organizational and command structure dramatically changed after the military coup in 1988. The first army division was formed in the year 1966. It was the 77th leisurely Infantry Division (LID) as rapid reaction mobile forces for strike operations. In adjoin 1990, a new Regional Military Command (RMC) was opened in Monywa with Brigadier Kyaw Min as commander and named North-Western RMC. A year later hundred-and-first LID was formed in Pakokku with Col. Saw Tun as commander. Two Regional Operations Commands (ROC) were formed in Myeik and Loikaw to facilitate command and control. They were commanded respectively by Brigadier Soe Tint and Brigadier Maung Kyi. March 1995 saw a dramatic expansion of the Tatmadaw as it established 11 Mi litary Operations Commands (MOC)s in that month. MOCs are similar to Mechanized Infantry Divisions in western armies, each with 10 regular infantry battalions (Chay Hlyin Tatyin), a military headquarters, and organic support units including field artillery batteries.Then in 1996, two new RMC were opened, Coastal Region RMC was opened in Myeik with Brigadier Sit Maung as commander and Triangle Region RMC in Kengtung with Brigadier Thein Sein as commander. Three more new ROCs were opened in Kalay, Bhamo and Mongsat. In late 1998, two new MOCs were opened in Bokepyin and Mongsat. WP 342. Australian National University The most significant expansion after the infantry in the army was in Armour and Artillery.Beginning in 1990, the Myanmar Army (Tatmadaw) procured 18 T-69II tanks and 48 T-63 amphibious light tanks from China. throw out procurements were made, including several hundred Type 85 and Type 92 armoured personnel carriers (APC). By the beginning of 1998, Tatmadaw had about 100 + T-68II main battle tanks, a similar number of T-63 amphibious light tanks and several T-59D tanks. These tanks and armoured personnel carriers were distributed into five armoured infantry battalions and five tank battalions and formed the first armor Division of the Tatmadaw under the name of 71st Armoured Operations Command with its headquarters in Pyawbwe.Strength and organization18.By 2000, the Myanmar Army had reached some 370,000 all ranks. There were 337 infantry battalions, including 266 light infantry battalions. Although the Myanmar Armys organisational structure was based upon the regimental system, the basic manoeuvre and fighting unit is the battalion, known as Tat Yin in Burmese, which comprised a headquarters unit four rifle companies (tat khwe) with three rifle platoons (Tat Su) each an administration company with medical, transport, logistics and signals units a heavy weapons company including mortar, machine blast and recoilless gun platoons. Each battalion is c ommanded a Lieutenant Colonel (du bo hmu gyi) with a Major (bo hmu) as 2IC (Second in Command), with a total establishment strength of 27 officers and 723 other ranks.Light infantry battalions in Myanmar Army have much lower establishment strength of around 500 as a result this often leads to these units being mistakenly identified by the observers and reporters as under strength infantry battalions. 19.With its significantly increased personnel numbers, weaponry and mobility, todays Tatmadaw Kyee is a formidable conventional defence force for the Union of Myanmar. Troops ready for combat duty have at least doubled since 1988. Logistics infrastructure and Artillery Fire Support has been greatly increased.Its newly acquired military might was apparent in the Tatmadaws dry season operations against Karen National Union (KNU) strongholds in Manerplaw and Kawmura. Most of the casualties at these battles were the result of eager and heavy bombardment by the Tatmadaw Kyee. Not only that Tatmadaw Kyee is now much larger than it was in pre-1988, it is more mobile and has greatly improved armour, artillery and air defence inventories.Its C3I (Command Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence) systems have been expanded and refined. It is developing larger and more integrated, self-sustained formations which should lend themselves to better coordinated action by different combat arms. The army may still have relatively modest weaponry compared to its larger neighbours, but it is now in a much better position to deter external aggression and respond to such a threat should it ever arise. The organisational tree is attached as annexure-A.Commander in Chief (Army)20.Until 1990, Myanmar Armed Forces has Chief of Staff system and Myanmar Army was led by Vice Chief of Staff (Army). In 1990, Myanmar Armed Forces was reorganized and all three branches of Armed Forces are now led by Commander-in-Chief.